CHAPTER........
AN ACT relating to insurance; providing for the regulation of captive insurers; establishing
requirements for licensure in this state as a captive insurer; establishing minimum
required amounts of capital and surplus that must be maintained by a captive
insurer; providing for a premium tax; exempting licensed captive insurers from
certain taxes; authorizing the commissioner of insurance to adopt regulations;
prohibiting a captive insurer from transacting insurance without a license; providing
a penalty; and providing other matters properly relating thereto.
THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF NEVADA, REPRESENTED IN
SENATE AND ASSEMBLY, DO ENACT AS FOLLOWS:
Section 1. Title 57 of NRS is hereby amended by adding thereto a
new chapter to consist of the provisions set forth as sections 2 to 40,
inclusive, of this act.
Sec. 2.
As used in this chapter, unless the context otherwise requires,the words and terms defined in sections 3 to 16, inclusive, of this act have
the meanings ascribed to them in those sections.
Sec. 3.
"Affiliated company" means a company in the samecorporate system as its parent or a member organization by virtue of
common ownership, control, operation or management.
Sec. 4.
"Agency captive insurer" means a captive insurer that isowned by an insurance agency or brokerage and that only insures risks
of policies which are placed by or through the agency or brokerage.
Sec. 5.
"Association" means a legal entity consisting of two or morecorporations, partnerships, associations or other forms of business
organizations.
Sec. 6.
"Association captive insurer" means a captive insurer thatonly insures risks of the member organizations of an association and the
affiliated companies of those members, including groups formed
pursuant to the Product Liability Risk Retention Act of 1981, as
amended, 15 U.S.C. §§ 3901 et seq.
Sec. 7.
"Captive insurer" means any pure captive insurer,association captive insurer, agency captive insurer and rental captive
insurer licensed pursuant to this chapter.
Sec. 8.
"Commissioner" means the commissioner of insurance.Sec. 9.
"Division" means the division of insurance of thedepartment of business and industry.
Sec. 10.
"Member organization" means any corporation,partnership, association or other form of business organization that
belongs to an association.
Sec. 11.
"Mutual insurer" has the meaning ascribed to it in NRS680A.030.
Sec. 12.
"Parent" means a corporation, partnership, association orother form of business organization that directly or indirectly owns,
controls or holds with power to vote more than 50 percent of the
outstanding voting securities of a pure captive insurer.
Sec. 13.
"Pure captive insurer" means a captive insurer that onlyinsures risks of its parent and affiliated companies.
Sec. 14.
"Reciprocal insurer" has the meaning ascribed to it in NRS680A.040.
Sec. 15.
"Rental captive insurer" means a captive insurer formed toenter into contractual agreements with policyholders or associations to
offer some or all of the benefits of a program of captive insurance and
that only insures risks of such policyholders or associations.
Sec. 16.
"Stock insurer" has the meaning ascribed to it in NRS680A.050.
Sec. 17.
1. A captive insurer, when authorized by its articles ofassociation, articles of incorporation or charter, may apply to the
commissioner for a license to transact insurance.
2. A captive insurer shall not transact insurance in this state unless
the captive insurer first obtains a license from the commissioner.
3. A person who violates this section is subject to the provisions of,
and shall be punished pursuant to, the Unauthorized Insurers Act set
forth in NRS 685B.020 to 685B.080, inclusive.
Sec. 18.
1. Except as otherwise provided in this section, a captiveinsurer licensed pursuant to this chapter may transact any form of
insurance described in NRS 681A.020 to 681A.080, inclusive.
2. A captive insurer licensed pursuant to this chapter:
(a) Shall not directly provide personal motor vehicle or homeowners’
insurance coverage, or any component thereof.
(b) Shall not accept or cede reinsurance, except as otherwise provided
in section 34 of this act.
(c) May provide excess workers’ compensation insurance to its parent
and affiliated companies, unless otherwise prohibited by the laws of the
state in which the insurance is transacted.
(d) May reinsure workers’ compensation insurance provided pursuant
to a program of self-funded insurance of its parent and affiliated
companies if:
(1) The parent or affiliated company which is providing the self
-funded insurance is certified as a self-insured employer by the
commissioner, if the insurance is being transacted in this state; or
(2) The program of self-funded insurance is otherwise qualified
pursuant to, or in compliance with, the laws of the state in which the
insurance is transacted.
3. A pure captive insurer shall not insure any risks other than those
of its parent and affiliated companies.
4. An association captive insurer shall not insure any risks other
than those of the member organizations of its association and the
affiliated companies of the member organizations.
5. An agency captive insurer shall not insure any risks other than
those of the policies that are placed by or through the insurance agency
or brokerage that owns the captive insurer.
6. A rental captive insurer shall not insure any risks other than those
of the policyholders or associations that have entered into agreements
with the rental captive insurer for the insurance of those risks. Such
agreements must be in a form which has been approved by the
commissioner.
7. As used in this section, "excess workers’ compensation insurance"
means insurance in excess of the specified per-incident or aggregate
limit, if any, established by:
(a) The commissioner, if the insurance is being transacted in this
state; or
(b) The chief regulatory officer for insurance in the state in which the
insurance is being transacted.
Sec. 19.
1. The board of directors of a captive insurer shall meet atleast one time each year in this state. The captive insurer shall:
(a) Maintain its principal place of business in this state; and
(b) Appoint a resident of this state as a registered agent to accept
service of process and otherwise act on behalf of the captive insurer in
this state. If the registered agent cannot be located with reasonable
diligence for the purpose of serving a notice or demand on the captive
insurer, the notice or demand may be served on the secretary of state who
shall be deemed to be the agent for the captive insurer.
2. A captive insurer shall not transact insurance in this state unless:
(a) The captive insurer has made adequate arrangements with a bank
located in this state that is authorized pursuant to state or federal law to
transfer money;
(b) If the captive insurer employs or has entered into a contract with a
natural person or business organization to manage the affairs of the
captive insurer, the natural person or business organization meets the
standards of competence and experience satisfactory to the
commissioner;
(c) The captive insurer employs or has entered into a contract with a
qualified and experienced certified public accountant or a firm of
certified public accountants that is nationally recognized;
(d) The captive insurer employs or has entered into a contract with
qualified, experienced actuaries to perform reviews and evaluations of
the operations of the captive insurer; and
(e) The captive insurer employs or has entered into a contract with an
attorney who is licensed to practice law in this state and who meets the
standards of competence and experience in matters concerning the
regulation of insurance in this state established by the commissioner by
regulation.
Sec. 20.
A captive insurer must apply to the commissioner for alicense. The application must include:
1. A certified copy of the charter and bylaws of the captive insurer;
2. A pro forma financial statement for the captive insurer that has
been prepared by a certified public accountant;
3. Any other statements or documents that the commissioner requires
to be filed with the application;
4. Evidence of:
(a) The amount and liquidity of its assets relative to the risks to be
assumed by the captive insurer;
(b) The expertise, experience and character of the persons who will
manage the captive insurer;
(c) The overall soundness of the plan of operation of the captive
insurer; and
(d) The adequacy of the programs of the captive insurer providing for
loss prevention by its parent or member organizations, as applicable; and
5. Such other information deemed to be relevant by the
commissioner in ascertaining whether the proposed captive insurer will
be able to meet its policy obligations.
Sec. 21.
An application by a captive insurer for licensure mustinclude a non-refundable application fee of $500. The commissioner
may retain legal, financial and examination services from outside the
division to review and make recommendations regarding the qualifying
examination of the applicant. The cost of those services must be paid by
the applicant. The provisions of NRS 679B.230 to 679B.287, inclusive,
apply to examinations, investigations and processing conducted pursuant
to this section.
Sec. 22.
1. If the commissioner determines that the documents andstatements filed by the captive insurer satisfy the requirements for
licensure, the commissioner shall issue a license to the captive insurer.
The license is valid for 1 year after the date on which it is issued. The
license may be renewed upon the satisfaction of all requirements
imposed by the commissioner and payment of the renewal fee.
2. A captive insurer must pay a fee of $300 for the issuance of a
license and an annual fee of $300 for the renewal of a license.
Sec. 23.
A captive insurer shall include its business plan with itsapplication for the issuance and renewal of a license. If the captive
insurer makes any changes to the business plan, the captive insurer shall,
as soon as practicable, file a copy of the updated business plan with the
commissioner.
Sec. 24.
A captive insurer shall not use or adopt a name that is thesame, deceptively similar or likely to be confused with or mistaken for
any other existing business name registered in this state.
Sec. 25.
1. A captive insurer must not be issued a license, and shallnot hold a license, unless the captive insurer has and maintains, in
addition to any other capital required to be maintained pursuant to
subsection 3, unimpaired paid-in capital of:
(a) For a pure captive insurer, not less than $100,000;
(b) For an association captive insurer incorporated as a stock insurer,
not less than $200,000;
(c) For an agency captive insurer, not less than $300,000; and
(d) For a rental captive insurer, not less than $400,000.
2. Except as otherwise provided by the commissioner pursuant to
subsection 3, the capital required to be maintained pursuant to this
section must be in the form of cash or an irrevocable letter of credit.
3. The commissioner may prescribe additional requirements relating
to capital based on the type, volume and nature of the insurance business
that is transacted by the captive insurer and requirements regarding
which capital, if any, may be in the form of an irrevocable letter of credit.
4. A letter of credit used by a captive insurer as evidence of capital
required pursuant to this section must:
(a) Be issued by a bank chartered by this state or a bank that is a
member of the United States Federal Reserve System and has been
approved by the commissioner; and
(b) Include a provision pursuant to which the letter of credit is
automatically renewable each year, unless the issuer gives written notice
to the commissioner and the captive insurer at least 90 days before the
expiration date.
Sec. 26.
The commissioner may approve an ongoing plan for thepayment of dividends or other distributions by a captive insurer if, at the
time of each payment or distribution, the retention of capital by the
captive insurer is in excess of the amounts required by the commissioner.
The commissioner shall adopt by regulation:
1. A specific amount that a captive insurer must have in excess
capital for the approval of an ongoing plan for the payment of dividends
or other distributions; or
2. A formula pursuant to which the specific amount of required
excess capital may be calculated.
Sec. 27.
1. A captive insurer must not be issued a license, and shallnot hold a license, unless the captive insurer has and maintains, in
addition to any other surplus required to be maintained pursuant to
subsection 3, an unencumbered surplus of:
(a) For a pure captive insurer, not less than $150,000;
(b) For an association captive insurer incorporated as a stock insurer,
not less than $300,000;
(c) For an agency captive insurer, not less than $300,000;
(d) For a rental captive insurer, not less than $350,000; and
(e) For an association captive insurer incorporated as a mutual
insurer or reciprocal insurer, not less than $500,000.
2. Except as otherwise provided in subsection 3, the surplus required
to be maintained pursuant to this section must be in the form of cash or
an irrevocable letter of credit.
3. The commissioner may prescribe additional requirements relating
to surplus based on the type, volume and nature of the insurance
business that is transacted by the captive insurer and requirements
regarding which surplus, if any, may be in the form of an irrevocable
letter of credit.
4. A letter of credit used by a captive insurer as evidence of required
surplus pursuant to this section must:
(a) Be issued by a bank chartered by this state or a bank that is a
member of the United States Federal Reserve System and has been
approved by the commissioner; and
(b) Include a provision pursuant to which the letter of credit is
automatically renewable each year, unless the issuer gives written notice
to the commissioner and the captive insurer at least 90 days before the
expiration date.
Sec. 28. Except as otherwise provided in this section, a captive
insurer shall pay dividends out of, or make any other distributions from,
its capital or surplus, or both, in accordance with the provisions set forth
in NRS 693A.140, 693A.150 and 693A.160. A captive insurer shall not
pay dividends out of, or make any other distribution with respect to, its
capital or surplus, or both, in violation of this section unless the captive
insurer has obtained the prior approval of the commissioner to make
such a payment or distribution.
Sec. 29.
1. A pure captive insurer, an agency captive insurer or arental captive insurer shall be incorporated as a stock insurer.
2. An association captive insurer shall be formed as a:
(a) Stock insurer;
(b) Mutual insurer; or
(c) Reciprocal insurer, except that its attorney-in-fact must be a
corporation incorporated in this state.
3. A captive insurer shall have not less than three incorporators, at
least two of whom must be residents of this state.
4. Before the articles of incorporation of a captive insurer may be
filed with the secretary of state, the commissioner must approve the
articles of incorporation. In determining whether to grant such approval,
the commissioner shall consider:
(a) The character, reputation, financial standing and purposes of the
incorporators;
(b) The character, reputation, financial responsibility, experience
relating to insurance and business qualifications of the officers and
directors of the captive insurer;
(c) The competence of any person who, pursuant to a contract with
the captive insurer, will manage the affairs of the captive insurer;
(d) The competence, reputation and experience of the legal counsel of
the captive insurer relating to the regulation of insurance;
(e) If the captive insurer is a rental captive insurer, the competence,
reputation and experience of the underwriter of the captive insurer;
(f) The business plan of the captive insurer; and
(g) Such other aspects of the captive insurer as the commissioner
deems advisable.
5. The capital stock of a captive insurer incorporated as a stock
insurer must be issued at not less than par value.
6. At least one of member of the board of directors of a captive
insurer or of its attorney-in-fact must be a resident of this state.
7. A captive insurer formed pursuant to the provisions of this chapter
has the privileges of, and is subject to, the provisions of general
corporation law set forth in chapter 78 of NRS as well as the applicable
provisions contained in this chapter. If the provisions of this chapter
conflict with the general provisions in chapter 78 of NRS governing
corporations, the provisions of this chapter control. The provisions of
chapter 693A of NRS relating to mergers, consolidations, conversions,
mutualizations and transfers of domicile to this state apply to determine
the procedures to be followed by captive insurers in carrying out any of
those transactions in accordance with this chapter.
8. The articles of association, articles of incorporation, charter or
bylaws of a captive insurer must require that a quorum of the board of
directors consists of not less than one-third of the number of directors
prescribed by the articles of association, articles of incorporation, charter
or bylaws.
Sec. 30.
1. On or before March 1 of each year, a captive insurershall submit to the commissioner a report of its financial condition, as
prepared by a certified public accountant. A captive insurer shall use
generally accepted accounting principles and include any useful or
necessary modifications or adaptations thereof that have been approved
or accepted by the commissioner for the type of insurance and kinds of
insurers to be reported upon, and as supplemented by additional
information required by the commissioner. Except as otherwise provided
in this section, each association captive insurer, agency captive insurer
or rental captive insurer shall file its report in the form required by NRS
680A.265. The commissioner shall adopt regulations designating the
form in which pure captive insurers must report.
2. A pure captive insurer may apply, in writing, for authorization to
file its annual report based on a fiscal year that is consistent with the
fiscal year of the parent company of the pure captive insurer. If an
alternative date is granted:
(a) The annual report is due not later than 60 days after the end of
each such fiscal year; and
(b) The pure captive insurer shall file on or before March 1 of each
year such forms as required by the commissioner by regulation to provide
sufficient detail to support its premium tax return filed pursuant to
section 37 of this act.
Sec. 31.
1. Except as otherwise provided in this section, at leastonce every 3 years, and at such other times as the commissioner
determines necessary, the commissioner, or his designee, shall visit each
captive insurer and thoroughly inspect and examine the affairs of the
captive insurer to ascertain:
(a) The financial condition of the captive insurer;
(b) The ability of the captive insurer to fulfill its obligations; and
(c) Whether the captive insurer has complied with the provisions of
this chapter and the regulations adopted pursuant thereto.
2. Upon the application of a captive insurer, the commissioner may
conduct the visits required pursuant to subsection 1 every 5 years if the
captive insurer conducts comprehensive annual audits:
(a) The scope of which is satisfactory to the commissioner; and
(b) Which are conducted by an independent auditor appointed by the
commissioner.
3. The commissioner may contract to obtain legal, financial and
examination services from outside the division to conduct the
examination and make recommendations to the commissioner. The cost
of the examination must be paid to the commissioner by the captive
insurer.
4. The provisions of NRS 679B.230 to 679B.287, inclusive, apply to
examinations conducted pursuant to this section.
Sec. 32.
1. The commissioner may suspend or revoke the license ofa captive insurer if, after an examination and hearing, the commissioner
determines that:
(a) The captive insurer:
(1) Is insolvent or has impaired its required capital or surplus;
(2) Has failed to meet the requirement of sections 25 to 28,
inclusive, of this act;
(3) Has refused or failed to submit an annual report, as required by
section 30 of this act, or any other report or statement required by law or
by order of the commissioner;
(4) Has failed to comply with the provisions of its charter or bylaws;
(5) Has failed to submit to an examination required pursuant to
section 31 of this act;
(6) Has refused or failed to pay the cost of an examination required
pursuant to section 31 of this act;
(7) Has used any method in transacting insurance pursuant to this
chapter which is detrimental to the operation of the captive insurer or
would make its condition unsound with respect to its policyholders or the
general public; or
(8) Has failed otherwise to comply with the laws of this state; and
(b) The suspension or revocation of the license of the captive insurer
is in the best interest of its policyholders or the general public.
2. The provisions of NRS 679B.310 to 679B.370, inclusive, apply to
hearings conducted pursuant to this section.
Sec. 33.
1. Except as otherwise provided in this section, anassociation captive insurer, an agency captive insurer or a rental captive
insurer shall comply with the requirements relating to investments set
forth in chapter 682A of NRS. Upon the request of the association
captive insurer, agency captive insurer or rental captive insurer, the
commissioner may approve the use of reliable, alternative methods of
valuation and rating.
2. A pure captive insurer is not subject to any restrictions on
allowable investments, except that the commissioner may prohibit or
limit any investment that threatens the solvency or liquidity of the pure
captive insurer.
3. A pure captive insurer may make a loan to its parent or affiliated
company if the loan:
(a) Is first approved in writing by the commissioner;
(b) Is evidenced by a note that is in a form that is approved by the
commissioner; and
(c) Does not include any money that has been set aside as capital or
surplus as required by subsection 1 of section 25 of this act or subsection
1 of section 27 of this act.
Sec. 34.
1. A captive insurer may provide reinsurance on risksceded by any other insurer.
2. A captive insurer may take credit for reserves on risks or portions
of risks ceded to a reinsurer that is in compliance with NRS 681A.140 to
681A.240, inclusive. A captive insurer shall not take credit for reserves
on risks or portions of risks ceded to a reinsurer if the reinsurer is not in
compliance with NRS 681A.140 to 681A.240, inclusive.
3. The commissioner may authorize a captive insurer to take credit
for reserves on risks or portions of risks ceded to a pool, an exchange or
an association acting as a reinsurer. The commissioner may require such
documents, financial information or other evidence as he determines
necessary to show that the pool, exchange or association will be able to
provide adequate security for its financial obligations. The commissioner
may deny authorization or impose any limitations on the activities of a
reinsurance pool, exchange or association that, in his judgment, are
necessary and proper to provide adequate security for the ceding captive
insurer and for the protection and benefit of the general public.
4. For the purposes of this chapter, insurance provided by a captive
insurer of any plan for workers’ compensation of its parent and affiliated
companies which is certified or otherwise qualified in the state in which
the insurance is provided as a self-insurance plan shall be deemed to be
reinsurance.
Sec. 34.5.
Insurance provided by a captive insurer in accordancewith this chapter may not be used to satisfy the requirements set forth in
chapter 706 of NRS relating to the insurance required to be maintained
by vehicles subject to the jurisdiction of the transportation services
authority or taxicab authority, unless the transportation services
authority or taxicab authority, as appropriate, specifically approves the
use of insurance provided by a captive insurer for that purpose.
Sec. 35.
A captive insurer is not required to join a ratingorganization.
Sec. 36.
A captive insurer shall not join or contribute financially toany risk-sharing plan, risk pool or insurance insolvency guaranty fund in
this state. A captive insurer or its insured, its parent or an affiliated
company, or any member organization of its association shall not receive
any benefit from such a plan, pool or fund for claims arising out of the
operations of the captive insurer.
Sec. 37.
1. Except as otherwise provided in this section, a captiveinsurer shall pay to the division, not later than March 1 of each year, a
tax at the rate of:
(a) Two-fifths of 1 percent on the first $20,000,000 of its net direct
premiums;
(b) One-fifth of 1 percent on the next $20,000,000 of its net direct
premiums; and
(c) Seventy-five thousandths of 1 percent on each additional dollar of
its net direct premiums.
2. Except as otherwise provided in this section, a captive insurer
shall pay to the division, not later than March 1 of each year, a tax at a
rate of:
(a) Two hundred twenty-five thousandths of 1 percent on the first
$20,000,000 of revenue from assumed reinsurance premiums;
(b) One hundred fifty thousandths of 1 percent on the next
$20,000,000 of revenue from assumed reinsurance premiums; and
(c) Twenty-five thousandths of 1 percent on each additional dollar of
revenue from assumed reinsurance premiums.
The tax on reinsurance premiums pursuant to this subsection must not
be levied on premiums for risks or portions of risks which are subject to
taxation on a direct basis pursuant to subsection 1. A captive insurer is
not required to pay any reinsurance premium tax pursuant to this
subsection on revenue related to the receipt of assets by the captive
insurer in exchange for the assumption of loss reserves and other
liabilities of another insurer that is under common ownership and
control with the captive insurer, if the transaction is part of a plan to
discontinue the operation of the other insurer and the intent of the
parties to the transaction is to renew or maintain such business with the
captive insurer.
3. If the sum of the taxes to be paid by a captive insurer calculated
pursuant to subsections 1 and 2 is less than $5,000 in any given year, the
captive insurer shall pay a tax of $5,000 for that year.
4. Two or more captive insurers under common ownership and
control must be taxed as if they were a single captive insurer.
5. Notwithstanding any specific statute to the contrary and except as
otherwise provided in this subsection, the tax provided for by this section
constitutes all the taxes collectible pursuant to the laws of this state from
a captive insurer, and no occupation tax or other taxes may be levied or
collected from a captive insurer by this state or by any county, city or
municipality within this state, except for ad valorem taxes on real or
personal property located in this state used in the production of income
by the captive insurer.
6. Ten percent of the revenues collected from the tax imposed
pursuant to this section must be deposited with the state treasurer for
credit to the account for the regulation and supervision of captive
insurers created pursuant to section 38 of this act. The remaining 90
percent of the revenues collected must be deposited with the state
treasurer for credit to the state general fund.
7. As used in this section, unless the context otherwise requires:
(a) "Common ownership and control" means:
(1) In the case of a stock insurer, the direct or indirect ownership of
80 percent or more of the outstanding voting stock of two or more
corporations by the same member or members.
(2) In the case of a mutual insurer, the direct or indirect ownership
of 80 percent or more of the surplus and the voting power of two or more
corporations by the same member or members.
(b) "Net direct premiums" means the direct premiums collected or
contracted for on policies or contracts of insurance written by a captive
insurer during the preceding calendar year, less the amounts paid to
policyholders as return premiums, including dividends on unabsorbed
premiums or premium deposits returned or credited to policyholders.
Sec. 38.
1. There is hereby created in the state general fund anaccount for the regulation and supervision of captive insurers. Money in
the account must be used only to carry out the provisions of this chapter.
Except as otherwise provided in section 37 of this act, all fees and
assessments received by the commissioner or division pursuant to this
chapter must be credited to the account. Not more than 2 percent of the
tax collected and deposited in the account pursuant to section 37 of this
act, may, upon application by the division or an agency for economic
development to, and with the approval of, the interim finance committee,
be transferred to an agency for economic development to be used by that
agency to promote the industry of captive insurance in this state.
2. Except as otherwise provided in this section, all payments from the
account for the maintenance of staff and associated expenses, including
contractual services, as necessary, must be disbursed from the state
treasury only upon warrants issued by the state controller, after receipt of
proper documentation of the services rendered and expenses incurred.
3. At the end of each fiscal year, that portion of the balance in the
account which exceeds $100,000 must be transferred to the state general
4. The state controller may anticipate receipts to the account and
issue warrants based thereon.
Sec. 39.
1. The terms and conditions set forth in chapter 696B ofNRS pertaining to insurance reorganization, receiverships and
injunctions apply to captive insurers incorporated pursuant to this
chapter.
2. An agency captive insurer, a rental captive insurer and an
association captive insurer are subject to those provisions of chapter
686A of NRS which are applicable to insurers.
Sec. 40.
The commissioner may establish such regulations as arenecessary to carry out the provisions of the chapter.
Sec. 41. NRS 679A.160 is hereby amended to read as follows:
7.
Health and welfare plans arising out of collective bargaining underchapter 288 of NRS, except that the commissioner may review the plan to
ensure that the benefits are reasonable in relation to the premiums and that
the fund is financially sound.
Sec. 42. The amendatory provisions of this act do not apply to
offenses committed before October 1, 1999.
Sec. 43. This act becomes effective upon passage and approval for the
purpose of adopting regulations to carry out the provisions of this act, and
on October 1, 1999, for all other purposes.
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